Unit III - 3rd Semester
Part 1
(i) Rose
Introduction: Topmost cut flower in the domestic and international market. Symbol of beauty, love and fragrance. Popularly known as the queen of flowers. Great diversity in plant growth and flower colour, cultivated for cut and loose flowers, oil extraction, rose water, flavouring agent and drying purposes, hips of some rose species are rich in vitamin C, petals are used for preparing Gulkand and Pankhuri. It belongs to the family Rosaceae and is originated from the Himalayan regions of Europe and North America.
Varieties used for cut flower purposes: Christion Dior, Avon, Crimson Glory, Grand Gala, First Red, Dallas, E.G. Hill, Happiness, Confidence, picture, First Prize, Sonia, Kiss, Europe, Royal, Nobles, Pink, Aristocrat, Better Times, Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Mercedes, Jazz, Orange Delight, President Herbert, Golden Time, Golden Gate, Golden Rapture, Golden Giant, Aalsmeer Gold, Tushar, June Bride, Prestige, Vivaldi, Verselia, Florence.
Climate: Requires good light throughout the year. The temperature range of 15°C to 28°C and 75% relative humidity is ideal for quality rose growing. High relative humidity may cause more incidences of disease and pest while lower relative humidity results in reduced size of leaves, flowers and stems.
Soil: Sandy loam to clay loam soil, deep and well-drained soil rich in the organic matter having pH 5.5 to 6.3. water-holding and nutrient holding capacity of the soil should be good.
Propagation
Cuttings: Matured current season shoots are selected for cuttings. The cut ends are dipped in root inducing hormone and planted in beds. Usually, miniature, shrub, climber and oil yielding roses are propagated by this method.
Micropropagation: High-frequency clonal propagation from axillary buds and shoot tip culture produce large quantities of chosen variety in a short span of time.
Budding: The most common and preferred method in Hybrid Tea roses, done in February-March, dormant eyes on a scion of chosen variety are budded either by T or inverted T or I method of budding on a rootstock, the commercially used rootstock is Rosa indica var odorata.
Cuttings: Matured current season shoots are selected for cuttings. The cut ends are dipped in root inducing hormone and planted in beds. Usually, miniature, shrub, climber and oil yielding roses are propagated by this method.
Micropropagation: High-frequency clonal propagation from axillary buds and shoot tip culture produce large quantities of chosen variety in a short span of time.
Budding: The most common and preferred method in Hybrid Tea roses, done in February-March, dormant eyes on a scion of chosen variety are budded either by T or inverted T or I method of budding on a rootstock, the commercially used rootstock is Rosa indica var odorata.
Cultural operations
Pruning: Done during the first week of October under north Indian conditions and in the last week of June and again in the last week of November under Bangalore conditions. However, in the case of essential oil yielding varieties of Rosa damascena, pruning is done from the last week of December to the beginning of January. The height of pruning varies from 30-45 cm from ground level.
Pinching: Part of the terminal growing portion of the stem is removed to promote axillary branching and to delay the maturity of buds.
Wintering: In this operation, the root is exposed in the first fortnight of October to provide rest to the plants for further quality flower production.
Stem bending: Five months after planting, the stems are bent out in such a manner that the angle between the original and bent shoot is less than 90°.
Pruning: Done during the first week of October under north Indian conditions and in the last week of June and again in the last week of November under Bangalore conditions. However, in the case of essential oil yielding varieties of Rosa damascena, pruning is done from the last week of December to the beginning of January. The height of pruning varies from 30-45 cm from ground level.
Pinching: Part of the terminal growing portion of the stem is removed to promote axillary branching and to delay the maturity of buds.
Wintering: In this operation, the root is exposed in the first fortnight of October to provide rest to the plants for further quality flower production.
Stem bending: Five months after planting, the stems are bent out in such a manner that the angle between the original and bent shoot is less than 90°.
Manure and fertilizers: In addition to the basal dose of well-decomposed FYM (50 t/ha), rose requires 200-400 kg of N, 150 kg/ha of each P and K/ha. The nitrogen dose may be split into two, once at the time of pruning and the second dose after 20 days of pruning. The basal dose of fertilizers may also be supplemented with foliar feeding, consisting of 2 parts urea, 1 part dihydrogen ammonium phosphate, 1 part potassium phosphate and 1 part potassium nitrate using 3 g of this mixture/l of water after one week or 10 days till flowering.
Diseases
Fungal: Die-back, Blackspot, Powdery mildew, Botrytis blight and Leaf blight. Insect pests: Mites, Beetle, Scale, Thrips, Jassids, Mites, Mealybugs, Aphids and Nematodes.
Fungal: Die-back, Blackspot, Powdery mildew, Botrytis blight and Leaf blight. Insect pests: Mites, Beetle, Scale, Thrips, Jassids, Mites, Mealybugs, Aphids and Nematodes.
Harvesting: For distant markets, harvested at tight bud stage and for local markets, buds should be harvested at a more advanced stage of opening.
Grading and packaging: After cooling, the stem shifted to an air-conditioned grading room. Healthy stems are sorted out in different grades according to the stem length, cultivar and condition of the flower. The graded stems are made into bundles of 20 each, tied loosely with a rubber band and wrapped with 2 plies soft corrugated paper and precooled fibreboard boxes.
Yield: Under open conditions, about 10-20 flower stems can be obtained in Hybrid Tea roses for cut flower purposes.
(ii) Gerbera
Introduction: It is popularly known as Barberton daisy, Transvaal daisy, Veldt daisy, African daisy and Hilton daisy. Gerbera is a popular cut flower that is ideally suited for flower beds, borders, pots, window boxes and gardens. It belongs to the family Asteraceae and is originated from tropical Africa.
Varieties: Black Heart, Calcutta Pink, Calcutta Red, Glory, Golden Gate, Gold Spot, Greenish Yellow, Kalimpong Yellow, Orange Glame, Ornella, Optima, Pink Elegance, Pink Star, Pride of Sikkim, Priyadarshini, Rosabella, Ruby Red, Saffron, Sangria, Savannah, Sunanda, Thalassa, Tiramigu, Tirramissa, Tonneke and Twiggy.
Climate: Gerbera like sunny situation in mild weather. A better quality of flowers was obtained when the temperature was less than 25oC and a higher temperature reduces the number and size of flowers. It requires an RH of about 80% all year-round.
Soil: A well-drained, rich, light, neutral or slightly alkaline soil is most suitable for gerbera production. It requires a soil pH range of 6.0-7.0.
Propagation: Gerbera is propagated through seeds and vegetative means. Seed propagation, however, requires longer period to produce flowers and also is not always satisfactory, since cross-pollination produces a great deal of variation in variety. Among the vegetative means, multiplication through the division of clumps is the most common.
Cultural operations
Weed control: About 2-3 hand weeding should be done at 15 days intervals and chemicals like trifularin, EPTC, nitrogen and diphenamid after one day of transplanting markedly reduced the growth and population of weeds.
Mulching: It can be done with the help of straw and polythene sheets. It gives good control of weeds and also helps to conserve soil moisture. The main disadvantage is that it serves as a home for various insects and pests.
Manure and fertilizers: Till 2-3 weeks after planting, no fertilizers are applied. From 3-12 weeks, N:P: K with the ratio of 20:20:20 should be applied at 0.75 g/l/ day and from 12 weeks onwards, 15:8:35 at 1-1.5 g/l/day can be applied.
Diseases
Fungal: Footrot and Root rot, Anthracnose, Blossom blight and Powdery mildew.
Insect pests: Whitefly, Leaf miner, Mites, Aphids and Nematodes.
Fungal: Footrot and Root rot, Anthracnose, Blossom blight and Powdery mildew.
Insect pests: Whitefly, Leaf miner, Mites, Aphids and Nematodes.
Harvesting: Flowers are generally cut when the outer two rows of disk florets are perpendicular to the stalk. Flowers should be pulled and placed immediately in water.
Yield: The yield under greenhouse is around 200-250 flowers/m2 /year of which 85% are of first-grade quality. However, the yield of flowers is about 120-150/ m2 /year under open cultivation of which only 15-20% of flowers are of first-grade quality because of fluctuation in temperatures and higher light intensity.
(iii) Carnation
Introduction: Commercial cut flower with excellent vase life and sweet fragrance, very light in weight and regain its shape after placing invase solution, commercially utilized for extraction of oil and perfumes. The carnation is a native to the Mediterranean region and belongs to family Caryophyllaceae.
Varieties
Standard varieties: Corleone, Lipstick, Design, Empire, Romana, Dark Tempo, White Tundra, Ariane, Cobra, Papaya, Monopole, Peterson Red, Scania Red, Scania White Sim, Nora, Red Diamond, Peppermint Lace, Pink Ice.
Spray varieties: Rony Anony, Rhodes, Light Pink, Barbara, Bagatel, Silvery Pink, Natila, Celins, White Barbara, Furove, Star Dust, Krystie.
Climate: Standards carnation perform well in a cooler climate, whereas spray types can grow better at higher temperatures. Carnation is a long day plant. Early flowering can be taken during long days than short days. The optimum night temperature during winter, spring and summer is 10°C to 11°
C, 12.7° C and 13.0° C to 15.4° C respectively. Plants grow well when relative humidity is 50-60%.
Soil: Sandy loam soils with proper drainage and rich in organic matter content with a pH of 6.0- 6.5 are most ideal.
Propagation
Terminal cuttings: NAA treated (250 ppm) cuttings (10-15 cm long) having 4-5 pairs of leaves are broken from the mother plant and planted in sand or in coco-peat in mist chamber.
Micropropagation: The propagation of carnation on a large scale through tissue culture has been standardized.
Cultural operations
Weed control: Weeding of beds needs to be done regularly. Application of fluchloralin herbicide @0.96kg/ha or pendimethalin (30%EC) at 0.90kga.i./ha were found very effective to control the weeds of carnation.
Pinching: There are three ways of pinching in carnation.
Single pinch: It is done once at the 5 node stage by retaining 4-5 shoots for obtaining an early crop. Usually done to get an early crop.
Pinch and a half: It is done to provide steady production of flowers but reduces the amount of first crop. In this type of pinch, the main stem is pinched and later when the resulting shoots are long enough, half of the largest shoots on each plant is pinched.
Double pinching: It is done first by doing a single pinch followed by another pinching off all the
shoots when they are 6-8 cm in length. It is done to delay flowering.
Deshooting: Unwanted shoots on the flowering stems are removed with the hands when they are about 2-3 cm long. This is done to get a healthy growth of a single plant.
Disbudding: Important operation in standard varieties. The side buds to be removed just after appearance without damaging the leaves and the stems.
Calyx banding: The problem of calyx splitting can be reduced by placing a band around the calyx of the flower bud when they have just started opening.
Manure and fertilizers: At the time of land preparation sufficient quantity of organic manure must be added. A basal dose of N, P, K, at the rate of 20: 20: 10 g/ m 2 is applied three weeks after planting. Fertigation is done with N at 100 ppm and K at 140 ppm twice a week along with other macro/micronutrients like Ca, Mg, Fe, B, Mn, Cu and Zn.
Diseases
Fungal: Wilt, Alternaria leaf spot and blight, Stem rot and Grey mould.
Insect pests: Variegated cutworm, Green peach aphid, Caterpillars, Thrips, Red spider mite and Nematodes.
Physiological disorders
Calyx splitting: Calyx may split down either half or completely. A number of factors like genetic, environmental, nutritional and other cultural practices are responsible.
Slab side: This disorder may arise during the cooler period and buds do not open evenly so that petals protrude on one side only.
Harvesting: The best time for harvesting is in the morning. The flowers are harvested by either or cutting off the stem with a sharp knife or small shears. The cut flower should be immediately placed in sodium hypochloride solution (15% a.i.) at 1 ml/10-litre water.
Grading and packaging: The fully opened flowers of standard cultivars may be protected by inserting the individual flowers in polyethene sleeves. The bunches are precooled at 2-3°C and packed in fibreboard boxes (30 cm height x 50 cm width x 122 cm length) for transport.
Yield: Generally, 200 flowers/m2 can be obtained from the standard type, while 250 flowers/m2 can be taken from the spray type.
(iv) Lilium
Introduction: Lilies are very useful to cut flowers as well as beds or border plants for giving
mass effect. Shorter varieties are planted in containers. In China, bulbs of tiger lily are
preferred as food due to their specific taste. Lilaline, an alkaloid is diuretic, emmenagogue,
emollient and expectorant. The flowers are carminative. They are used to strengthen the
eyelid muscles and are recommended in the treatment of myoptic astigmia.
Varieties
Asiatic cultivars: Alaska, Lucyda, Marbelle, Pulsar, Sancerre, Ventoux, Apledoorn, Bangalope, Elite, Loreto, Menton, Prato
Oriental cultivars: Casa Blanca, Dream, Mont Blanc, Montreal, Primeur, White Sheen, Corina, Jazz, Red Carpet, Strangazer
Climate: To obtain the best quality of lily flowers the day temperature range should be 15-20oC, whereas night temperature of around 8-10°C is suitable. Lilies require some shading. For cut flower production, a 30-40% shade cloth is common. Under Indian conditions during the summer months use of a shading net to cut of 75% light and 50% during winter is beneficial.
Soil: Soil used for the cultivation of Lilium should be good in structure particularly top layer. Sandy loam soil is found suitable for its cultivation. The growing medium must be porous for good aeration and water drainage. A soil pH of 6.0 to 6.5 is recommended.
Propagation: Lilies can be multiplied by seeds, scales, bullets and bulbils. Micropropagation has also been a successful method for large scale multiplication.
Cultural Operations
Weed control: Chloropham at 3.5 l/ha and propyzamide at 2.25 kg/ha is found beneficial to control the wild population except for leguminous weeds. Application of simazineat3 4 weeks of emergence is found effective to control the weeds.
Staking: Staking or netting of lily plants is required when they become 50 cm tall. Netting is to be done at 50-60 cm intervals. It reduces the breakage of stems.
Manure and Fertilizers: The application of nutrients is essential for the proper growth and flowering of Lilium. Lilies responded well with the application of nitrogenous fertilizer. Nitrogen should be applied at 1 kg of calcium ammonium nitrate/100 m 2
after three weeks of planting bulbs. If plants are weak and showing deficiency of N then a top dressing of fast-release nitrogen (Urea) @ 1 Kg/100 m2 may be done before three weeks of flower harvesting.
Diseases
Fungal: Footrot, Fusarium scale rot and Botrytis blight
Bacterial: Soft rot
Viral: Tulip breaking virus and Cucumber mosaic virus
Insect Pests: Aphid, Fullerrosebeetle, Stalkborer, Thrips, Bulbmite and Nematodes
Harvesting: Flowers of lily are harvested when the first lowermost bud shows full colour but has not yet opened. The spike of flowers is generally cut 15 cm above the ground levels so that the development of the bulb may continue in the soil.
Grading and Packaging: After harvesting, flowers are graded as per the number of flower buds per stem, length and firmness of stem. In the Netherlands, they are graded by the lowest number of calyx per stem and the highest number of calyx per stem. Removal of anthers from open bloom is an important operation to prevent spoiling the flower or any surfaces on which it might fall. The foliage must be removed at 10 cm above the bottom, which helps in packaging. The lilies are bunched in a bundle of six stems.
Yield: The yield of flowers greatly varies according to cultivar, a package of practices adopted during cultivation and climatic conditions. The average production of marketable spike is 1,00,000 to 1,12,500/ha, whereas bulb yield is 1,25,000 to 1,50,000/ha.
(v) Orchid
Introduction: Orchids are perennial, terrestrial, epiphytic, saprophytic or inter-mediate herbs with rhizomes or pseudobulbs or tuberous or aerial roots. Orchid is the most diverse flowering plant utilized for cut flower production and as a potted plant. Orchids are excellent for gardens and can be grown in beds, pots, baskets, split hollows of bamboo pieces or even in tree bark. The leaves of Vanda roxburghii is used against rheumatism. Habenaria, a terrestrial genus of orchid also possesses medicinal properties. Vanillin produced from Vanilla planifolia is used in flavouring industries. Pseudobulbs of Cymbidium madidum and Dendrobium speciosum are used as food.
Orchids are available in abundance in tropics and temperate regions. It belongs to the family Orchidaceae and is originated from Indo Malayan and Tropical America.
Classification
Monopodial: The main axis continues to grow year after year and bears flowers on lateral branches. The following genus belongs to thisgroupArachnis: Arachnis is generally known as scorpion orchid or spider orchid.
Flowers appear almost all year-round. They prefer bright sunlight and high humidity for growth and development.
Renanthera: This is also a sun-loving orchid, having good commercial value. It is grown in the southern districts of Kerala, especially in the coastal belt.
Phalaenopsis: Phalaenopsis grow best at a low temperature, light intensity and lesser humidity. Flowers are flat with three-lobed lips. They are borne long sprays in large numbers.
Vanda: Based on the shape of leaves, there are two types of Vandas; the strap leaved and the terete (pencil-like) leaved.
Sympodial: The main axis comprises of annual portions of successive axis each of bears scale leaves and terminal flowers. The following genus belongs to this groupCattleya: These are also of two types based on the leaf types, the unifoliate which produces a single leaf from each pseudobulb and bifoliate which produces two or even three leaves. The pseudobulbs and the flowers are usually larger in size. They require partial shading under tropical conditions. There are more than 50 species.
Dendrobium: Dendrobium is the second largest genus of orchids consisting of around 1340 species. They produce pseudobulbs or slender canes out of the underground rhizomes. They prefer partial shade and high humidity. Several commercial varieties are found to perform extremely well under tropical conditions.
Varieties: NewPink,HiengBeauty,EmmaWhite,KasemWhite,Sonia-28,Sonia- 17,
White Nern, Boonchoo Gold, Kanchana Green, Jacquline Thomas, Madam
Vipor, Pink Tips, Banyat Pink, Sakura Pink andSabine.
Climate: Irrespective of the genera, all orchids need morning sunlight. Arachnis, Vanda, etc. can tolerate very high light intensities of the tropics, whereas, the light requirement of Cattleya is lower. It is still lower in the case of Dendrobium and very low in Phalaenopsis. Although various species vary in their individual requirement of optimum temperature, most of the cultivated orchids thrive in a day temperature varying from 15.5° to 21° C and night temperature of 10 to 15.5oC. Orchids, in general, prefer high humidity. Monopodial require high humidity (up to 70%), while sympodials require comparatively less humidity (40-50%).
Soil: Areas with very high slope are not desirable. Though the soil quality is not a problem for epiphytic orchids, saline soils may be avoided. In the case of sympodial hybrids that are easily killed by excess moisture, resulting from deep burial of the plants, the media serve to conserve moisture, which on evaporation favours the plants. In general, the media support the plants and supply moisture rather than providing nourishment as is the case with most of the other plants.
Propagation
Propagation of monopodial orchids: Stem cuttings, Flower stalk cuttings, and Layering and Micropropagation.
Propagation of sympodial orchids: Division, Off-shoots or keikis, Backbulbs and Micropropagation
Potting and repotting: Repotting with porous compost containing barks, cocochips, cocopeats, leaf mould, sawdust, chopped leaf ferns or brick pieces. Repotting every after 2-4 years as indicated by the bulbs filling the pot, breaking down of potting mixture and if a plant is not able to produce 1-2 bulbs each year from each bulb that grew the previous year. Fresh air and good circulation. Leaves should move gently in a light breeze. Training with bamboo sticks or yoyo to keep the spikes upright position.
Cultural operations
Weed control: Hand weeding must be done very carefully. A combination of direx 4L (1.5 kg a.i./ha) and ronstar WP (2.2 g/l) applied either as a potting component or as a spray application can provide a wider spectrum of weed control than either chemical alone.
Replanting/repotting: The plant is gently shaken out of the pot. If the roots are clinging to the
inside of the pots tightly, a sharp knife is run around the inside wall of the pot to loosen
the roots. If the plants have a sufficient number of shoots, they are divided and repotted separately. Before planting, the dead bulbs and dried roots should also be removed.
Regulation of light: Providing optimum shade is an important aspect of the cultivation of orchids. Maximum spike production occurs in 25% double-level shading. Fifty per cent single level shading is distinctly superior to all other treatments with respect to the number of flowers per spike. Vase life also increases in 25% and 50% double levels of shade.
Ventilation: Air movement helps to evaporate stagnant water trapped during watering, where fungi and bacteria breed.
Damping: To imitate these conditions, damping is done by spraying the floors, walls and staging of the house. Damping in winter should be done with a rising temperature.
Spraying: Spraying is done in the morning and afternoon during warm weather. Plants like Cymbidium delight in heavy spraying in hot weather.
MANURE AND FERTILIZERS: A fertilizer complex containing nitrogen, phosphorus and potash in equal proportion (like 17:17:17 complex) is ideal for general application. Instead of a readymade mix or complex fertilizer, a mixture can be readily prepared using laboratory chemicals. Ammonium nitrate, orthophosphoric acid and potassium nitrate (to supply N, P and K respectively) can be used for this. During the vegetative phase, a 30:10:10 combination of N, P and K should be used which may be changed to the 10:20:20 formulation during the flowering stage. A concentration of 0.2% should be sprayed twice a week.
Diseases
Fungal: Leaf spot, Pythium black rot and flower blight.
Bacterial: Bacterial soft rot
Viral: Blossom brown necrotic streak, Mosaic flower break, Cymbidium mosaic, black streak or Cattleya leaf necrosis and Odontoglossum ring spot.
Insect pests: Aphids, Orchid weevil, Orchid bulb borer, Orchid fly, Orchid mealybug, Cattleya midge, Cattleya weevil, Dendrobium borer, Scales, Thrips, Mites, Slugs and Nematodes.
Harvesting: Correct stage of harvesting is essential as it not only influences keeping quality but also adds to the beauty of the spike.Cattleyashouldbeharvested3to5daysafterthebud split or dehisce. Dendrobium is harvested when two or three buds are still unopened. The weather conditions prevailing at the time of harvesting influence the exact stage of picking. During warm weather, the blooms can be harvested at an earlier stage of development. Tagging the buds each day facilitate the cutting process. Cymbidium can be cut with the help of a sharp blade when they are fully open. Individual flower or the entire spike is harvested at one time.
Flowers are harvested twice a week during the peak production periods and once a week during low periods. Harvesting is done when 30 to 40% of the flowers are open. Harvesting should preferably be done in the evening. The knife used for harvesting should be dipped in an antibiotic mixture to prevent disease transmission.
Grading and packaging: Grading is done on the basis of a number of flower/buds, uniformity of flowers colour, maturity and the number of open flowers compared with a number of buds, flower blemishes, stem length, stem curvature, missing floral parts, presence of twisted or deformed flowers. After grading, hydrating, grouping and sleeving take place. To keep flowers hydrated, a small piece of moist cotton is kept at the base of each stem, covered with a small piece of plastic film (6 x 6 cm). Packing can be carried out in a single spray or in bunches with stem bases aligned. Five or ten sprays in a bunch are standard. Bunches are placed in clear plastic sleeves. After sleeving, the flowers packed in fibreboard trays are then packed in master cartons. The cartons should have a sufficient number of holes to facilitate aeration.
Flowers are shipped either as an intact spray or individual flowers.
Yield: In general orchid has a long gestation period and it produces flowers after 3-4 years of plantation. The yield of orchid flowers varies according to the genus. Dendrobium gives a yield of 1-2 spikes/plant. The genus Oncidium bears 5-6 stems/plant, producing 30-50 flowers/stem. Genus Vanda has an average yield of approximately 4 sprays/plant bearing 10-15flowers per spray. Generally,genusCymbidiummaygivea yield up to 2500 spikes from the fourth year onward, reaching up to 5000 to 7500spikes per 500 m2 area in the fifth and sixth year, respectively.
