Unit - III Part 2
5(i) Gladiolus
Introduction: It is an important commercial cut flower, ideal for bedding, flower arrangement, in bouquets and for decorations. It belongs to the family Iridaceae and is originated from South Africa.
Varieties: Eurovision, Pink Friendship, Snow Princess, Rose Supreme, Rose Spire, Suchitra, Peter Pears, Mayur, White Prosperity, Jester and Subhangini.
Climate: Optimum growth of gladiolus occurs at temperatures between 10-25°C. Long day treatments delay flowering but improve bloom quality. Long day condition of 12-14 hrs photoperiod increases the number of florets, spike length and flowering percentage.
Soil: Sandy loam soil with a pH between 6.0 to 7.0 is ideal. Gladiolus plants are sensitive to alkaline and degraded soil.
Propagation: Gladiolus is propagated by seed, by vegetative means (corms, cormels) and by micropropagation.
Manure and fertilizers: Organic manure should be mixed through the topsoil before planting to improve the structure of the soil. Nitrogen should be applied at 300 kg/ha which may be reduced in medium and heavy soils. It is applied in two doses, first at 3 leaf stages and second at 6 leaf stage. Phosphorus should be given as a basal dose ranging from 150-200 kg/ha depending upon soil test. Gladiolus requires around 120- 150 kg K2O/ha at the time of planting of corms. Iron deficiency can be corrected by spraying ferrous sulphate at 0.2 per cent, twice or thrice at 10 days intervals.
Fungal: Fusarium wilt, Storage rot, Dry or Neck rot, Botrytis blight, Flower rot and Leaf spot.
Bacterial: Leaf spot
Insect pests: Aphids, Thrips, Borers, Loopers and Nematodes.
Tip burn: This physiological disorder occurs due to high levels of aerial fluorides in the atmosphere. A spray of blitox 50 WP (0.3%) should be given at initiation of symptoms and repeated once more if required.
Geotropic bending of spikes: This is primarily due to the lateral downward movement of auxin and its accumulation on the lower portion of the spike. To prevent bending of tips, the spikes should be held vertically in storage as well as during the transportation.
Harvesting: Spikes are ready for harvest in 60-90 days after planting and continue for about a month. For export and distant market, it should be harvested at the tight bud stage or when basal 1-2 florets show colour. Harvesting should be done in the morning or evening hours when the temperature is mild. For the local market, spikes are harvested when the basal floret is fully opened. The cut is given above the top leaf sheath with the help of a sharp secateurs/knife. The cut spikes are immediately kept in a bucket containing water. While cutting spikes 2-3 bottom leaves should be left.
Post-harvest management: Spikes can be pulsed with 20 per cent sucrose plus 8-HQC (200 ppm)/ aluminium sulphate (300 ppm) or sodium hypochlorite (50 ppm) for improving vase life.
Grading And Packaging: The spikes are graded before marketing. According to the Society of American Florists, gladiolus should be graded as follows:
Fancy (Blue) >107 16
Special (Red) 96-107 14
Standard (Green) 81-96 12
Utility (Yellow) <81 10
Graded spikes are made into bunches of 10-12 and loosely tied with a rubber band and packed in cardboard boxes. Empty tube lightboxes can be used for this purpose and each such box canaccommodate250to300qualityspikes. For export purposes, spikes need to be pre-cooled at 4- 5°C for 72 hours under dry conditions. Uncooled spikes can be transported for 24-48 hours at 20-25°C. Transportation medium depends on the distance to market.
Yield: Approximately yield of flower spike would be around 2,00,000-3,00,000/ha depending on planting density, cultivar, corm size and management practices.
5(ii) Tuberose
Introduction: It is commercially grown as a cut flower, loose flower as well as for its potential in the perfume industry. The flowers of tuberose are used for artistic garlands, floral ornamentals, bouquets and buttonholes. It belongs to the family Agavaceae and is originated from Mexico.
Varieties: Variegated, Calcutta Single, Calcutta Double, Rajat Rekha, Swarna Rekha, Shringar, Suvansini, Prajwal and Vaibhav.
Climate: Tuberose grows in a mild climate without extreme high or low temperatures. For its luxuriant growth, it requires high humidity and moderate temperature. The double type cultivars prefer a cooler temperature than the single type. Tuberose grows well in sunny situations. The optimum temperature range for growth and development is 20o C to 30o C.
Soil: Loam and sandy loam soil with good aeration and drainage are considered ideal for its successful cultivation. Well-drained friable soil of at least 45 cm depth, rich in organic matter and sufficient moisture retaining capacity is good for proper plant growth. A mixture of garden soil, farmyard manure and leaf mould in the proportion of 2:1:1 should be used for pot culture of tuberose.
Propagation: Tuberose is generally propagated vegetatively by means of bulbs. Seeds are difficult to germinate. To get virus-free material or for a very rapid multiplication, the tissue culture method is adopted.
Weed control: Generally, weeding is done by hand. Pre-emergence application of Stomp (pendimethalin 30 EC at 1.25 kg a.i./ha) caused a maximum reduction of weeds and also produced a higher yield of quality flowers.
Manure and fertilizers: Fertilizer application at 200 kg N, 150 kg P and 150 kg K/ha is recommended to obtain a maximum number of spikes. Nutrition dose comprising of 200 kg N, 150kg P and 200kg K/ha has been found optimum for tuberose-under Pune conditions.
Fungal: Stem rot or Sclerotial wilt, Leaf blight or Botrytis blight and Alternaria leaf spot.
Bacterial: Flower bud rot.
Insect pests: Grasshopper, Weevil, Aphid, Red Spider Mite, Thrips, Borers and Nematodes.
Harvesting: Flowering of tuberose starts 2 to 4 months after planting. For its marketing as a cut flower, the tuberose is harvested by cutting the spike when 1-2 pairs of flowers open on the spike preferably in the morning before sunrise or late in the evening. About 4-6 cm basal portionhastobelefttoallowthegrowthofbulb.Forlooseflowerproductionandextractionof concrete/absolute only individual open flower is harvested early in the morning from the flower spike. On average, 2 to 4 flowers per spike can be plucked every day.
Grading and packaging: These spikes are graded according to the stalk length, length of rachis, number of flowers per spike and weight of spike. For making bouquets and room decorations, long spikes are preferred and are sold in bundles. Each bundle contains 50- 100 spikes. The bundle of the spike is packed in rectangular bamboo baskets lined with cloth. For long distance transport, corrugated cardboard boxes are used for packaging. The size of boxes varies in accordance with spike length. As a guideline, the minimum length of the box should be about double the width and its width about double the height. Each bundle is tied and the upper portion of the rachis is wrapped in either tissue or grease paper. The bundles should be placed in two parallel rows, two in one row and the other two in second rows. The direction of rachis in two rows should be in opposite direction. Paper is to be placed below the bundles and in between bundles and then transported to distant places.
Yield: The yield in tuberose crop varies with the type of cultivar, size of bulb, time of planting, the density of planting and other management practices adopted. Normally 2 lac to 4 lac spikes/ha or 10-15 tonnes loose flower/ha can be obtained. The yield of bulbs varies from 18-30 tonnes/ha.
5(iii) Marigold
Introduction: Extensively used for making garlands, beautification and other purposes i.e.pigment and oil extraction, insect and nematode repellent. It belongs to the family Asteraceae and is originated from Mexico and South America.
Varieties: Alaska, Apricot, Burpee’s Giant Fluffy, Burpee’s Miracle, Burpee’s White, Chrysanthemum Charm, Crackers Jack, Crown of Gold, Cupid Double Eagle, Doublebloom, Golden Yellow, Goldsmith, Guinea Gold, Happiness, Happy Face, Hawaii, Honeycomb, Orangemum, Pusa Narangi Gainda, Pusa Basanti Gainda, Primerose, River Side, Sovereign, Snowbird, Sugar and Spice, Sun Giants, Super Chief Double, Sutton’s Giant Orange Double, Yellow Climax, Yellow Fluffy and Yellowstone.
Climate: They require a mild climate for proper plant growth and profuse flowering. Its ceases growth at high temperature, thereby flower quantity and quality are adversely affected. In general, marigolds need plenty of sunshine and are grown in an open sunny situations in India. The critical photoperiod for T. erecta is below 12.5 and 13 hours and failed to grow under short days at a higher temperature.
Soil: Marigold can be grown in a fertile, deep, friable soil with good water holding capacity is required for luxuriant plant growth and profuse flowering. It should also be well-drained and well-aerated with pH5.8-6.2.
Propagation: Commonly marigold is propagated by seeds and cuttings. Seed propagation is widely adopted because plants raised from seeds are vigorous and yield more due to good establishment in the field than cuttings.
Cultural operations
Weed control: Generally 3-4 weedings are required for the entire growth period. Chemical weed control has been found beneficial. For French marigold, granular formulations of simazine 2.0 kg a.i./ha, and EPTC and chloramben at 5.0 kg a.i./ha applied as the post-plant application was reported to be effective in controlling weeds.
Pinching: Marigold plants grow straight upwards to their final height and develop into terminal flower buds. Single pinching at 40 days after transplanting was found effective at Ludhiana. In high-density planting (15 × 15 cm), double pinching i.e. at 40 and 60 days after transplanting have been recommended for higher flower and seed yield.
Manure and fertilizers: It is advisable to apply 200 kg/ha of nitrogen and 80 kg/ha each of phosphorus and potash for good flower yield. The full dose of phosphorus and potash should be incorporated into the soil during land preparation, whereas the quantity of nitrogen should be applied in two split doses after 30 and 60 days of transplanting. It is better if two foliar sprays of 0.20 per cent urea is done at an interval of 15 days.
Fungal: Damping-off, Collar rot, Leaf spot, Botrytis flower blight, Fusarium wilt and Septoria leaf spot
Bacterial: Bacterial leaf spot
Insect pests: Red spider mite, Leafhopper and Hairy caterpillar Physiological disorders
Leaf burn: Tips and margins of leaves yellow and die due to excess boron, manganese or molybdenum. Application of micronutrients should be done carefully after soil analysis. Mn, Mo and B should not be more than 55 ppm, 24 ppm and 3 ppm, respectively.
Harvesting: Marigold flowers should be plucked when they attain full size. Plucking of flowers should be done in cool hours of the day. Irrigation of field is found beneficial to keep the flower fresh, after harvesting and can be transported to long distance.
Post-harvest management: After harvesting, flowers should be kept in small or big baskets. Grading and packaging: Flowers are generally packed in gunny bags for transportation to the local market. Precaution should be taken to the packing of flowers for long-distance. For this purpose, medium size baskets should be taken. Bamboo baskets should be covered with gunny and moistened before transportation.
Yield: In general, a yield of 20-22 tonnes of fresh flowers can be obtained from one hectare of plantation in the case of African marigold, whereas from French marigold it is 12-15 tonnes per hectare under normal cultivation practices.
5(iv) Jasmine
Introduction: Jasmine is a sweet-scented plant grown both as a shrub and climber. Flowers and flower buds are used for making garlands, bouquets and Veni and for religious offerings. Jasmine oil extracted from the flower is highly valued as it is used in manufacturing perfumes, cosmetics, creams, hair oils, soaps and shampoos. Jasmines are native to tropical and subtropical regions and belong to the family Oleaceae.
Parimullai: A clonal selection from germplasm. Buds are white. Corolla tube is moderate. Flower yield is 7.8 t/ ha and concrete recovery is 0.29%.
CO-1: This is a local selection from a local type. Buds are white and bold with long corolla tubes. Concrete recovery is 0.34%.
CO-2: A clonal selection from germplasm. Buds are white with longer corolla tubes than Co1. Different variants identified basically on the flower characters are Long Point, LongRound, MediumPoint, ShortPoint, ShortRound and BigMullai.
Jasminum grandiflorum (Linn.) Kobuski: CO-1, CO-2, Arka Surabhi,
Jasminum sambacAit: DoubleMogra, Gundumali, Iruvatchi, Kasthurimalli, Madanban, Oosimalli, Ramabanam, Single Mogra, Soojimalli, Khoya and Arka Aradhana
Climate: In general, a mild tropical climate is good for proper plant growth and flower production. In India, jasmines are grown under open field conditions. Hence, for successful cultivation mild winter, warm summer, moderate rainfall and sunny situations are required.
Soil: Jasmine gives good results in well-drained rich loam soil. Water logging conditions damage plants of jasmine. Soil pH varies from 5-8.
Propagation: Jasmine can be propagated by seed propagation or vegetative means i.e. cutting, layering budding and grafting. Seed propagation, though uncommon, is necessary for crop improvement through hybridization. Multiplication through sucker in J. arborescens and J. multiflorum has also been found successful.
Cultural operations
Weed control: Manual weed control is effective if done properly but chemical weed control (Paraquat and glyphosate at 2.0 kg a.i./ha) is economical.
Pruning: Pruning influences plant growth, flower bud initiation and differentiation and ultimately resulted in more flower production. Among the various dates of pruning from the third week of January to the third week of March at Coimbatore, maximum flower yield was observed in the third week of January in J. auriculatum. In J. sambac maximum flower yield was recorded by pruning on the last week of October.
Chemical defoliants: Various chemical defoliants reduced the apical dominance and encourage lateral shoots. Application of 3000 ppm of pentachlorophenol was found more effective in flower production than potassium iodide, boll’seye, ethrel and paraquat dichloride in J.grandiflorum.
Manure and fertilizers: For higher yield, a fertilizer dose of 120 g N, 240 g P and 240g K/plant proved to be the best in J. auriculatum under Coimbatore conditions. In J. sambac, a basal dose of FYM (10 kg/plant) and N, P, K, Fe, and Zn at 60,120,120,25 and 4 g/plant in two split doses (December and June) is recommended for higher flower yield under Coimbatore conditions. Biofertilizers i.e. Azospirillum and phospho bacteria along with 75% of recommended nitrogen and phosphorus doses resulted in maximum flower yields in J. sambac cv Gundumalli and J. grandiflorum cv CO-2 at Coimbatore.
Fungal: Leaf blight, Rust and Wilt.
Viral: Mosaic and Phyllody.
Insect pests: Budworm, gallery worm, tingid bug and scales, Mites, Hopper, bug, leaf roller and blossom midge, scales and nematodes.
Harvesting: Flowering in jasmines starts from the second year or some earlier, but the economic yield is generally obtained from the third year. The stage of flower harvest depends upon the purpose of use. For fresh flowers fully developed unopened flower buds are picked early in the morning, while for extraction of concrete only fully opened freshly picked flowers are required which are picked early in the morning. Delay in picking results in the gradual reduction of concrete yield. Care should be taken that flowers are not badly handled and should not be wrinkled and damaged during harvesting. For concrete extraction, fully open flowers are harvested in the morning (6 to 8 am). In India, jasmine flowers are harvestedmanually. In other countries, for harvesting purposes, the suction harvester is used.
Grading and packaging: Flower bud should be graded according to corolla shape, size and freshness before packing in the boxes or baskets for marketing. Corrugated cardboard boxes are the proper packing material for the distant market while bamboo baskets may be used for the local markets. The harvested flower should be given cold treatment before packing. Flowers are packed so as to maintain some moisture and air circulation in the basket. Water is sprinkled on the newspaper covering the inside of the basket.
Yield: Flower and concrete yield in Jasmines varies considerably according to the species, cultivars and management practices etc.
Jasminum auriculatum 4636 to 9022kg/ha 0.28 to 0.36%(13.44-28.24)
Jasminum grandiflorum 4239 to10,144kg/ha 0.25to0.32%(13.85-29.42)
Jasminum sambac 2063 to 8129kg/ha 0.14 to 0.19%(11.18-15.44)
5(v) Chrysanthemum
Introduction: It is commonly known as Queen of East, Autumn Queen and Guldaudi. It is used as a potted plant, loose flower, cut flower and as a border plant in the garden. Chrysanthemum cinerariifolium yields pyrethrin insecticides. It belongs to the family Asteraceae and is native to China, Japan, North Africa and southern Europe.
Classification
Incurved: Ray florets are incurved and the flower is compact and globular. Eg. Snowball and Chandrama
Reflexed: Ray florets are reflexed outside and the bloom is flat. Eg. Sweet Heart and day Dream.
Intermediate: Inner florets are incurved and outer florets are reflexed type. Eg. Sun Flight.
Quilled: Ray florets are elongated and tubular. Eg. Tribhuvan and Green Sensation.
Spider: Ray florets are large, tubular and curved like a spider. Eg. Mahatma Gandhi, Rupasi Bangla.
Ball: Ray florets are radiated in all directions like a ball. Eg. Nigeria and Red Jack.
Irregular: blooms are with irregular overlapping petals. Eg. Mountaineer.
Korean Single: Blooms are flat with 5 or less than 5 whorls. Eg. Cardinal, Gul-e-Sahir.
Korean Double: Blooms are flat with more than 5 whorls. Eg. Flirt, Man Bhawan. Decorative: flower is completely double and disc florets are completely invisible. Eg. Blue Chip, Alankar.
Anemone: Blooms with flat ray florets and prominent and well-developed disc florets. Eg. Baggi, White Bouquet.
Button: Small compact hemispherical blooms like buttons are present. Eg. King Fisher, Gold Dust.
Quilled: Florets are fully tubular. Eg. Snow Crystal, Yellow Hector.
Semi-quilled: Florets are tubular up to some length and then are opened. Eg. Golden Crystal.
Cineraria: Flowers very small (less than 3 cm) and flat, perfect for pot culture. Eg. Bindya, Charmis.
Stellate: these are star-like flowers with very short disc florets. Eg. Stella, Red Star.
Varieties: Some popular released varieties from different institutes are
National Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow: Apsara, Arun Singar, Birbal Sahani, Haldighati, Hemant Singar, Kargil’99, Sadbhavana, Shanti, Sharad Singar and Y2K.
Indian Institute of Horticultural Research, Bangalore: Kirti, Pankaj, Rakhee, Ravikiran and Red Gold.
Punjab Agricultural University: Punjab Gold
Annual chrysanthemum: Primrose Gem, Whity, Flame Shades and John Bright.
Large-flowered:
White: Snow Ball, Kasturba Gandhi, Beauty and Innocence.
Yellow: Chandrama, SonarBangla, SuperGiant, Mountaineer, and evening star.
Mauve: Mahatma Gandhi, Peacock, Pink Turner, Classic Beauty and Pink Giant.
Red: Diamond Jubilee, Distinction, Alfred Wilson and AutumnBlaze.
Small-flowered varieties suited for pot culture:
White: Sharad Shoba, Shweta Singar, Rita and Niharika.
Mauve: Sharad Prabha, Hemant Singar and Fantasy.
Yellow: Indira, Sonali Tara and Sharad Kanti.
Red: Rakhee, Flirt, Jaya and Arun Singar.
Small-flowered varieties suitable for cut flowers:
White: Birbal Sahani, Apsara and
Himani. Yellow: Nanako, Jayanti and Kundan.
Mauve: Sharad Prabha, Nilima and Ajay.
Red: Jaya, Flirt and Jubilee.
No-pinch cultivars: Arun Singar, Rangoli, Haldighati, Suhag Singar, Bindiya, Mother Teresa and Dina.
Climate: The critical day length is 14-15 hours for flower initiation and 13-14 hours for flower development. The best temperature for growing chrysanthemum ranges from 20- 28o C for day and 15-20o C for the night. Chrysanthemum requires 70-90% relative humidity.
Soil: It requires sandy loam with a pH of 6.2 to 6.7, having good tilth with proper aeration and drainage facility. EC should be 1.0 to 1.5.
Propagation: Chrysanthemum is vegetatively propagated through suckers, cuttings and by micropropagation.
Suckers: Optimum time of separation is when 5 to 6 green leaves appear. Basal leaves and long roots should be cut before planting.
Terminal cuttings: Cuttings of 5-7 cm length are taken from healthy, disease free stock plants by shearing basal leaves and cutting half of the open leaves. Dipping of the basal portion of cuttings in IBA 2500 ppm improves rooting percentage.
Micropropagation: Protocols have been developed by various workers and success has been reported in multiplying chrysanthemum at a faster rate by using shoot apex, peduncle, leaves and other floral parts as explants.
Seed: Treatment of thiourea promotes germination of dormant seeds. Seedlings are transplanted 30 days after seed sowing.
Cultural Operations:
Weed control: Regular hand weeding in the early stages should be done. Herbicides like alachlor, oxadizon and oxyfluorfen are also found effective in this crop.
Pinching: Pinching can be performed both in suckers and cuttings. Generally, two pinchings are required in chrysanthemum plants first at 4 weeks after planting and second at 7 weeks after planting. In spray chrysanthemum, regular pinching is done to produce a maximum number of flowers per stem. Generally, three types of pinching are performed in chrysanthemum, as given below.
Soft pinching: This is done to reduce plant height by removing tips of branches. Shoot along with 2-3 open leaves are kept in initial stages.
Hard pinching: It is done in pot plants. It removes a longer plant portion to keep the plant compact.
Roll out pinching: It is practised only in short plants.
Disbudding: Disbudding is done to remove the side branches and to control flower number and size. It is usually done in large flowering and Decorative cultivars.
De shooting: It is practised to reduce the number of branches, for improving the size and form of the flower.
Mulching: Mulching discourages weeds and conserves moisture for good growth of the root system. Buckwheat hulls, ground corncobs, pine needles, straw, cottonseeds etc. are the common mulches used in the chrysanthemum.
Desuckering: For preventing improper and vigorous growth of plants, suckers are removed from time to time. Without de suckering, the plant will lose vigour and becomes weak. Manure and fertilizers: Nitrogen 50 kg, phosphorus 160 kg and potassium 80 kg should be provided as basal dose.
Diseases
Fungal: Leaf spot, powdery mildew and flower rot.
Black spot is a serious disease of chrysanthemum caused by Septoria chrysanthemella fungus. Grey circular spots appear on leaves which turn yellow and result in leaf fall. A spray of 0.2% Dithane M 45 prevents this disease.
Powdery mildew in chrysanthemum is caused by Oidium chrysanthemi fungus. Symptoms, effect and control are the same as in rose powdery mildew.
Flower rot is caused by Botrytis cineraria fungus leading to the appearance of water soaked brown spots on flower petals and flower rot. This disease can be controlled by a spray of 0.2% Dithane M 45.
Viral: Chrysanthemum is affected by a number of viral diseases. The flowers of virus-infected plants are reduced in size and show varying amounts of distortion and loss of colour. For controlling the spread of viruses, infected plants should be destroyed, vectors like aphids and thrips should be controlled by regular spraying of rogor (0.15%).
Insect pests: Aphids, Hairy caterpillars, Red Spider mite, Thrips and Nematodes.
Harvesting: Standard chrysanthemums are harvested when fully open but before the central disc begins to elongate. Spray cultivars are harvested when fully open but before the shedding of pollens and pompons are harvested when the centre of the oldest flower is fully open.
Grading and packaging: Most of the Standard chrysanthemums are placed in poly sleeves and packed in display boxes measuring 91 cm x 43 cm x 15cm. They are placed in the boxes according to the grade. Flowers are generally packed in a bamboo basket and polythene bags. Packing in a 200 gauge polyethene bag enhances freshness, colour and longevity. Loose flowers can be stored at 3-5 oC for two weeks at higher humidity and proper ventilation.
Yield: In the standard type of chrysanthemum, the yield of flower stems varies from 15-20. The yield of loose flowers ranges from 10-15 tonnes of flower/ha.